21. Application of critical theories to literary texts

The application of critical theories to literary texts involves analyzing and interpreting literature through various theoretical lenses. These theories provide frameworks for understanding deeper meanings, cultural contexts, power dynamics, and underlying ideologies within literary works. By applying critical theories, readers can uncover multiple layers of significance that might not be immediately apparent.

Common Critical Theories in Literary Analysis

1. Marxist Criticism

   • Focus: Class struggle, economic power, and material conditions.
   • Application: Marxist critics analyze how literature reflects, reinforces, or challenges social hierarchies and economic systems.
   • Example: In Charles Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities, a Marxist reading might focus on the class struggles between the aristocracy and the working class, examining how the novel critiques the inequalities of the French Revolution.

2. Feminist Criticism

   • Focus: Gender roles, patriarchy, and the representation of women.
   • Application: Feminist critics explore how literature portrays women, challenges or reinforces gender stereotypes, and reflects the power dynamics between genders.
   • Example: In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper, a feminist analysis might focus on the protagonist's oppression by her husband and the broader societal constraints on women's autonomy, viewing the wallpaper as a symbol of female entrapment.

3. Psychoanalytic Criticism

   • Focus: The unconscious mind, desires, and psychological motivations of characters and authors.
   • Application: Psychoanalytic critics interpret literature through the lens of Freudian or Jungian psychology, exploring themes of repression, the unconscious, and internal conflicts.
   • Example: A psychoanalytic reading of William Shakespeare’s Hamlet might focus on Hamlet’s Oedipal complex, analyzing his obsession with his mother and his delayed revenge as manifestations of deep psychological conflict.

4. Postcolonial Criticism

   • Focus: Colonialism, cultural identity, and the impact of imperialism.
   • Application: Postcolonial critics examine how literature reflects the experiences of colonized peoples, critiques colonial power structures, and explores issues of identity and resistance.
   • Example: Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart can be analyzed through a postcolonial lens to explore the effects of British colonialism on Igbo society, examining how the novel critiques the destructive impact of colonial rule on indigenous cultures.

5. Structuralism and Semiotics

   • Focus: Language, signs, and the structures that underlie literary texts.
   • Application: Structuralist critics analyze the underlying structures of language and narrative, often focusing on binary oppositions and the relationships between signs.
   • Example: A structuralist analysis of The Odyssey might focus on the binary oppositions (e.g., home vs. journey, civilization vs. wilderness) that structure the narrative and contribute to its meaning.

6. Deconstruction

   • Focus: The instability of language and the fluidity of meaning.
   • Application: Deconstructive critics seek to expose contradictions, ambiguities, and the multiplicity of meanings in a text, often challenging traditional interpretations.
   • Example: A deconstructive reading of Robert Frost’s poem The Road Not Taken might challenge the conventional interpretation of the poem as celebrating individual choice, instead highlighting the ambiguity and uncertainty in the speaker's reflections on choice and consequence.

7. New Historicism

   • Focus: The historical and cultural context of literary works.
   • Application: New Historicist critics analyze how literature is shaped by and reflects the historical conditions of its time, often examining power relations and the interplay between text and history.
   • Example: A New Historicist analysis of Shakespeare’s Macbeth might explore how the play reflects the anxieties about kingship, power, and legitimacy in Jacobean England, particularly in the context of the Gunpowder Plot and the divine right of kings.

8. Reader-Response Criticism

   • Focus: The role of the reader in creating meaning.
   • Application: Reader-response critics emphasize the active role of the reader in interpreting a text, arguing that meaning is not fixed but is generated through the reader’s engagement with the text.
   • Example: A reader-response approach to Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights might explore how different readers interpret Heathcliff’s character, whether as a tragic hero, a villain, or something in between, depending on their own experiences and perspectives.

9. Ecocriticism

   • Focus: The relationship between literature and the environment.
   • Application: Ecocritics examine how literature represents nature, environmental issues, and the human-nature relationship, often advocating for greater ecological awareness.
   • Example: Henry David Thoreau’s Walden can be analyzed through an ecocritical lens to explore its themes of nature, simplicity, and the critique of industrial society, emphasizing the text’s environmental philosophy.

10. Queer Theory

    • Focus: Sexuality, gender fluidity, and the subversion of heteronormativity.
    • Application: Queer theory examines how literature challenges or reinforces normative ideas about gender and sexuality, often focusing on the representation of LGBTQ+ identities and experiences.
    • Example: A queer reading of Virginia Woolf’s Orlando might explore how the novel plays with gender identity and fluidity, challenging traditional gender norms through the protagonist’s transformation from male to female.

Examples and Case Studies of Applying Critical Theories

1. Case Study: Marxist Criticism in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

   • Scenario: The Great Gatsby explores themes of wealth, class, and the American Dream in 1920s America.
   • Marxist Analysis: A Marxist reading might focus on the disparities between the rich and the poor, the commodification of human relationships, and the illusion of the American Dream. The novel can be seen as a critique of capitalist society, where material wealth is valued over human connection, and the pursuit of wealth leads to moral decay.

2. Case Study: Feminist Criticism in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

   • Scenario: Pride and Prejudice centers around the romantic and social aspirations of the Bennet sisters in 19th-century England.
   • Feminist Analysis: A feminist reading might examine the limited options available to women in Austen’s time, the pressures of marriage, and how characters like Elizabeth Bennet challenge traditional gender roles. The novel critiques the societal expectations placed on women and highlights the importance of female agency and intelligence.

3. Case Study: Postcolonial Criticism in Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys

   • Scenario: Wide Sargasso Sea is a prequel to Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre, focusing on the backstory of Bertha Mason, the "madwoman in the attic."
   • Postcolonial Analysis: A postcolonial reading of the novel explores themes of racial and cultural identity, colonialism, and the effects of European imperialism on Caribbean societies. The novel reinterprets Jane Eyre from the perspective of a colonized "other," offering a critique of colonial attitudes and the erasure of non-European voices.

4. Case Study: Psychoanalytic Criticism in Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

   • Scenario: Frankenstein tells the story of Victor Frankenstein’s creation of a living being and the tragic consequences that follow.
   • Psychoanalytic Analysis: A psychoanalytic reading might explore Victor’s obsessive drive to create life as a manifestation of repressed desires and fears, perhaps linked to the loss of his mother. The novel can be interpreted as an exploration of the unconscious, the consequences of playing God, and the fears of uncontrollable forces within the human psyche.

5. Case Study: Deconstruction in The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger

   • Scenario: The Catcher in the Rye follows the disillusioned teenager Holden Caulfield as he navigates the challenges of adolescence.
   • Deconstructive Analysis: A deconstructive reading might focus on the contradictions and ambiguities in Holden’s narrative, challenging the coherence of his identity and the stability of his perceptions. The novel can be seen as questioning the reliability of language and the certainty of meaning, revealing the fluidity and instability of Holden’s world.

Conclusion

The application of critical theories to literary texts allows for a deeper and more nuanced understanding of literature. Each theory offers a unique perspective, uncovering different aspects of a text’s meaning, context, and significance. By employing these theories, scholars and readers can engage with literature in ways that challenge traditional interpretations, reveal hidden ideologies, and explore the complex relationships between literature, culture, and society. This multifaceted approach enriches our appreciation of literature and deepens our understanding of the human experience as reflected in literary works.